Adverb

Definition:

The part of speech (or word class) that is primarily used to modify a verb, adjective, or other adverb. Adverbs can also modify prepositional phrases, subordinate clauses, and complete sentences. Adjective: adverbial.

Positions of an Adverb:
An adverb that modifies an adjective ("quite sad") or another adverb ("very carelessly") appears immediately in front of the word it modifies. An adverb that modifies a verb is generally more flexible: it may appear before or after the verb it modifies ("softly sang" or "sang softly"), or it may appear at the beginning of the sentence ("Softly she sang to the baby"). The position of the adverb may have an effect on the meaning of the sentence.
When used with a verb, adverbs can give information about:

• how something happens or is done:

She stretched lazily.
He walked slowly.
The town is easily accessible by road.

• where something happens:

I live here.
She’s travelling abroad.
The children tiptoed upstairs.

• when something happens:

They visited us yesterday.
I have to leave soon.
He still lives in London.

Adverbs can make the meaning of a verb, adjective, or other adverb stronger or weaker:

• with a verb:

I almost fell asleep.
He really means it.

• with an adjective:

These schemes are very clever.
This is a slightly better result

• with another adverb:

They nearly always get home late.
The answer to both questions is really rather simple.
Adverbs are often found between the subject and its verb:
She carefully avoided my eye.

They can also come between an auxiliary verb (such as be or have) and a main verb:
The concert was suddenly cancelled.
He had quickly eaten his dinner. 

Functions of an Adverb:
Adverbs typically add information about time (rarely, frequently, tomorrow), manner (slowly, quickly, willingly), or place (here, there, everywhere) in addition to a wide range of other meanings.

http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/words/adverbs
http://grammar.about.com/od/ab/g/adverbterm.htm

Style In Written Englis

 An English writing style is a way of using the English language.

The style of a piece of writing is the way in which features of the language are used to convey meaning, typically but not always within the constraints of more widely accepted conventions of usage, grammar, and spelling.

An individual's writing style may be a very personal thing. Organizations that employ writers or commission written work from individuals may require that writers conform to a standardized style defined by the organization. This allows a consistent readability of composite works produced by many authors, and promotes usability of, for example, references to other cited works.

In many kinds of professional writing aiming for effective transfer of information, adherence to a standardised style of writing helps readers make sense of what the writer is presenting. Many standardised styles are documented in style guides. Some styles are more widely used, others restricted to a particular journal. Adherence to no particular style is also a style in its own right; some may think it undesirable, others not.

      1. SEQUENCE OF TENSES

Dalam penulisan bahasa inggris, sequence of tenses adalah logika yang mengatur tentang tenses, misalnya sebuah kejadian di future tense tidak bisa terjadi di past tense. Dalam writing, sequence of tenses menentukan dimana sebuah kejadian terjadi. Kejadian past tense datang sebelum kejadian present tense, kejadian present tense datang sebelum kejadian future tense dll. Hal ini bisa kita lihat pada if clause.

Contohnya :

a.Jika seorang berkata “I need to go to the store” maka anda harus mengatakannya “she said that she needed to go to the store” anda mengubah “need” menjadi “needed” padahal kejadiannya masih sama-sama dalam present tense.

b. “if you could meet me at the airport, I would be grateful” ini merupakan kejadian present tense tapi kita mengubah “can” menjadi “could” karena ini adalah conditional sentence.

c. “I wish I had been at the party last night” kalimat ini merupakan kejadian past tense yang tidak terjadi tapi kita menggunakan past perfect untuk mengatakannya. 

2. PARALEL STRUCTURE

Dalam penulisan bahasa inggris, PARALEL STRUCTURE adalah menggunakan pola kalimat yang sama untuk menunjukkan kata-kata yang memiliki level kepentingan yang sama. Hal ini bisa terjadi dalam kata, frasa, ataupun klausa. Biasanya untuk membuat paralel structure kita menggunakan kata penghubung, seperti ‘and” dan “or”

Contohnya :

a. Contoh paralel structure dalam kata menggunakan gerund “mary like hiking, swimming, and bicyling” atau menggunakan infinitive “mary likes to hike, swim, and ride a bicycle” jika menggunakan paralel structure kita tidak boleh mencampurnya seperti dalam kalimat “mary likes hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle”

b. Contoh paralel structure dalam frasa “the teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner. And lacked motivation” semua frasa dalam kalimat diatas menggunakan frasa kerja “waited”, “complited”, dan “lacked”, penggunaan paralel structure dalam frasa pun tidak boleh dicampur seperti dalam kalimat “the teacher said thet he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner and his motivation was low”.
c. Paralel structure yang dimulai dengan menggunakan klausa juga harus diikuti dengan klausa yang sama, jika pola klausa berubah maka akan melanggar paralel structure seperti dalam kalimat “the coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat to much, and to do some warm up exercises before the game” klausa “ to do some warm up exercises before the game” memiliki poaralel structure, seharusnya kalimat sebenarnya “the coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, they should not eat too much, and that they should do some warm up exercises before the game”. 

3. ANTECEDENT

Dalam penulisan bahasa inggris, antecedent adalah kata yang digantikan oleh pronoun. Kata antecedent berarti “sebelumnya”. Hal ini dikarenakan pronoun sering menggantikan kata sebelumnya atau kata yang sudah disebutkan terlebih dahulu sebelumnya.

Contohnya : 
a “when you see the profesor, please tell him I”ll be 10 minutes late” dalam kalimat ini kata “profesor” merupakan antecedent dan kata “him” merupakan pronoun dari kata “profesor” yang terlebih dahulu disebutkan.
b.“gail called to say she will arrive at 7 o’clock “ dalam kalimat ini “gail merupakan antecedent dan kata “she” merupakan pronoun. 
c. “The man who lives next door lost his driving license” dalam contoh ini kata “man” merupakan antecedent dari relative pronoun “his”.

Walaupun arti kata antecedent adalah “sebelumnya” antecedent tidak selalu disebutkan di awal, namun bisa juga disebutkan setelah pronoun seperti dalam kalimat “when you see him, please tell the profesor I”ll be late 10 minutes” kata profesor masih merupakan antecedent dari pronoun “him” namun kata “profesor” disebutkan di akhir setelah pronoun.

      4.  REDUDANCY

Dalam penulisan bahasa inggris, redudancy adalah kata yang mubazir untuk ditulis atau diucapkan untuk kedua kalinya karena memiliki kesamaan arti dengan kata sebelumnya.

Contohnya : 
a. “if all of us cooperate together, we will succeed” dalam kalimat tersebut kata “cooperate” dan “together” digunakan, padahal mereka memiliki arti yang sama. Salah satu dari kata tersebut seharusnya dihilangkan agar kalimatnya menjadi benar seperti “if all of us cooperate, we will succed” atau “if all of us work together, we will succeed”
b. “The accused was guilty of false misstatement” kata “false” dan “misstatement” memiliki arti yang sama, maka kita harus menghilangkan salah satunya seperti “the accused was guilty of misstatement”
c. “ it was the general consensus of opinion that we must go to the movie” dua kata yang memiliki arti yang sama dalam kalimat tersebut adalah kata “consensus” dan “opinion”, maka kita harus menghilangkan salah satunya agar menjadi kalimat yang benar “it was the general opinion that we must go to the movie”

5.DANGLING CONSTRUCTION

Dalam penulisan bahasa inggris, dangling construction adalah sebuah modifier yang gagal dalam kalimat. Tugas modifier adalah mendeskripsikan secara khusus sebuah kata.

Contohnya : 
a. “ having read your letter, my cat will stay indoors until the ducklings fly off” dalam kaimat ini secara arti menyatakan bahwa kucing itu sedang membaca surat padahal maksut penulis sebenarnya adalah kita akan membiarkan kucing di dalam rumah selama kita membaca surat. Seharusnya modifier yang tepat adalah “ having read your letter, we will keep our cat indoors until the ducklings fly off” 
b.  “ Meticulous and punctual, david’s work ethic is admirable” modifier “meticulous and punctual” gagal menjelaskan “david’ dan malah menjelaskan “david’s work ethic”. Kalimat yang seharusnya adalah “meticulous and punctual, david has an admirable work ethic”.
c. “Having seen blackpool tower, the eiffel tower is more impressive” dalam kalimat ini modifier “having seen blackpool tower” seharusnya tidak menjelaskan eiffel tower karena artinya akan janggal, kalimat yang benar seharusnyaa “having seen blackpool tower, she thinks the eiffel tower is more impressive”.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

Active voice

In most English sentences with an action verb, the subject performs the action denoted by the verb.

    These examples show that the subject is  doing the verb's action.

            The man must have eaten five hamburgers

                        The man (subject) is doing the eating (verb)

            Marilyn mailed the letter

                        Marilyn (subject) is doing the mailing (verb)

            Colorful parrots live in the rainforests

                        Parrots (subject) are doing the living (verb)

Because the subject does or "acts upon" the verb in such sentences, the sentences are said to be in the active voice.

Passive voice

One can change the normal word order of many active sentences (those with a direct object) so that the subject is no longer active, but is, instead, being acted upon by the verb - or passive.

    Note in these examples how the subject-verb relationship has changed.
            Five hamburgers must hane been eaten by the man
                        Hamburgers (subject) are being eaten (verb)
            The letter was mailed by Marilyn
                        The letter (subject) was being mailed (verb)

Because the subject is being "acted upon" (or is passive), such sentences are said to be in the passive voice.

Sumber : http://www.towson.edu/ows/activepass.htm